Though noble-born males were anticipated to serve as part-time warriors, the majority of the Roman military consisted of a professional force of common folk. While most narratives of the Roman empire recount the tales of influential individuals, Legion embarks on a different narrative path.
This article highlights the experiences of everyday soldiers, encompassing both citizen legionnaires and non-citizen auxiliaries, along with their families. By tracing the life of a legionary whose correspondence to home has endured the ages, Claudius Terentianus, the exhibition invites visitors on a journey from recruitment to retirement. Through numerous letters, Terentianus shares his unsuccessful endeavor to enlist in the legions around AD 110. He writes to his family requesting apparel and supplies and narrates his challenges in assimilating. While he yearned for a transfer, he was assigned to the eastern front during Trajan’s campaign against Parthia. Ultimately, he fulfilled his ambition, referring to himself as ‘a soldier of the legion’ and successfully transitioned into retirement.
Recruitment
Consistent remuneration and societal rank served as appealing motivators for prospective new enlistments into the Roman military. Soldiers who were citizens would enjoy regular salaries throughout their service—and upon retiring, would receive a pension equivalent to ten years’ pay. Nonetheless, a majority of the empire’s populace did not share such privileges. Excluding the dire situations of the enslaved, most freeborn individuals lacked the societal status—and legal rights—of Roman citizens. They remained eligible to join the Roman army, though at a reduced salary. For non-citizens, the promise of Roman citizenship after 25 years of military service represented a significant social shift, not just for themselves, but also for their families.
There existed stringent physical and social criteria for recruitment: candidates had to be men measuring at least 172 cm (5 feet 7 inches) tall and, despite no minimum age being stipulated, they had to enlist before reaching 35 years of age. All recruits required a recommendation letter and faced intensive training. Individuals from across the empire enlisted, leading to a diverse military force. Soldiers were frequently deployed to unfamiliar territories far from home, serving alongside individuals from diverse cultures.
Once recruits swore the oath (sacramentum), they could not withdraw, with most committing to serve in the military for a minimum of 25 years. Even citizen soldiers forfeited their rights to legally challenge military orders encompassing corporal punishment and capital sentences. The gold coin depicts a recruit taking the oath. Two soldiers face each other with swords resting upon a sacrificial pig, held by an attendant, who administers the oath. After this point, the only honorable means of exiting the service were medical discharge, retirement, or death in battle.
Ranks and Responsibilities
Once they were sworn in, an aspiring soldier could pursue various roles within the ranks. Marines appeared to be the least favored division of the non-citizen auxiliary service but would accept citizens like Terentianus, who were unable to join the legions. Terentianus longed to move to a land-based auxiliary unit: apart from the additional dangers of naval service, marines’ duties on land were often challenging or unsociable and included road construction, fire suppression, and safeguarding Rome’s grain supply.
With appropriate social connections, soldiers could obtain transfers. More lucrative regiments included the auxiliary cavalry, whose allure could even entice legionaries. Possessing or acquiring a practical skill, like carpentry, could excuse soldiers from mundane tasks. Otherwise, they relied on promotions. Soldiers aspiring for advancement needed to excel among their peers and possess reading and writing proficiency. The esteemed position of standard bearer was available only to those who were numerate, in addition to being literate, as they handled the soldiers’ records. Standard bearers earned twice the salary of ordinary soldiers while centurions, the sole officer class accessible to commoners, could make 15 to 60 times the base wage.
Cavalrymen were regarded as some of the most sought-after roles in the military. They received additional pay, required to maintain their horse and its gear. They were tasked with fewer responsibilities and had opportunities to engage in impressive displays donning special face-mask helmets, sometimes referred to as cavalry parade helmets.
Preparing for Combat
Soldiers were responsible for purchasing and maintaining their own weaponry and armor. They could acquire new or used items from fort armories or occasionally from local artisans. Some veterans retained their equipment rather than selling it back to the armory, allowing it to be passed down. Second-hand gear remained in use for an extended duration, often transferring between generations. Modifications and updates were even possible.
Such is true for this helmet from Eich, Germany. Its original design was prevalent at the turn of the first century AD, but has alterations reflecting helmet craftsmanship from approximately fifty years later: a Roman armorer has trimmed and reshaped the neck guard and added a carrying handle. This clever repurposing indicates long-term service. Another helmet displayed in the exhibition has been scratched with the designations of four soldiers indicating potentially up to a hundred years of utilization. However, following modifications, the Eich helmet shows just one name inscribed: ‘Marcus Arruntius from Aquileia (Italy) who served in the century of Sempronius.’
Camps and Conquests
Troops faced significant hardships before setting foot on the battlefield. This encompassed months of trekking and nightly encampments; groups of eight men occupied a tent, along with responsibilities in camp. Tents transformed into temporary residences for both soldiers and emperors, and occasionally, empresses. Julia Domna, spouse to Emperor Septimius Severus, was recognized for accompanying her husband on military expeditions and was immensely favored by the troops. She earned the title of Mater Castorum – mother of the camp. This bust illustrates her distinctive coiffure, in this instance a wig, with strands of hair near the ears. The curve along the rear of the wig gives it a helmet-like appearance – possibly an intentional gesture by her to emphasize her association with the military.
Roman legions operated within meticulously structured battle lines and shield formations. Their combat strategies and alignments enabled them to confront even the seemingly indomitable heavy shock cavalry (cataphracts) of their eastern foes. Cataphract cavalry donned armor that enveloped both horse and rider. This armored horse covering was unearthed from Dura Europos, a site located in present-day Syria; it was abandoned when the location was overrun by the Sasanians in AD 256–67. It features scales larger than those utilized on human armor.
Garrison Life
The Roman military established forts wherever a sustained military presence was deemed necessary – along the empire’s borders or in volatile regions to avert local insurrections. Their uniform design mirrored that of Roman settlements but included barracks and additional military structures. Civilian communities (vici) featuring bathhouses, shops, and taverns emerged just outside the fortifications. Soldiers enjoyed personal lives outside of their military duties with their families, both formal and informal. Artifacts relating to domestic life and leisure time are frequently discovered at forts, such as this sandstone gaming board and glass gaming counters from Vindolanda.
Regular soldiers (below the rank of centurion) were not formally permitted to marry, but they nonetheless established significant relationships with women and formed families. Enslaved men, women, and children also populated the forts, with some accompanying soldiers on campaigns. Evidence of women, children, and enslaved individuals linked to the military is common in forts and funerary art. This tombstone representing the daughter of Crescens, an imaginifer (a type of Roman standard-bearer), illustrates her reclining on a couch while a young enslaved girl attends to her. The names of attendants are rarely recorded, and in this instance, the daughter of Crescens also remains unnamed on the tombstone, leaving both women without identities.
Some of the most poignant artifacts representing families residing in forts are the numerous shoes from Vindolanda belonging to men, women, and children. Among those showcased in the exhibition are a small pair of leather shoes for children.
Enforcers of Control
Rome expanded and integrated an unparalleled array of territories. The inhabitants of these territories (provinces) became subjected to Roman law – with soldiers tasked to uphold that law, especially in implementing punishments. With a limited number of soldiers responsible for policing a vast empire, it could result in oppressive and exploitative forms of governance. As enforcers, Roman soldiers were unsurprisingly disliked, often facing the threat of retaliation. Military rosters sometimes recorded soldiers ‘killed by bandits’.
While large-scale uprisings occurred sporadically, they often exacted a significant toll, both on the military and local populations. In AD 9, a Germanic tribal leader’s offspring, Arminius, who was commissioned as a Roman cavalry officer, betrayed his commanders to spearhead a rebellion against Roman authority. Aligning with his native tribes, he annihilated three full Roman legions in AD 9, at Teutoburg forest, thwarting the expansion of Roman rule over his homeland. Over four decades later in Britain, Queen Boudica of the Iceni tribe led a less effective uprising, resulting in the destruction of fledgling Roman settlements including St Albans, Colchester, and London.
The armor depicted above is the most ancient and most intact Roman segmental cuirass, a style of protective gear frequently represented on soldiers as shown on Roman monuments like Trajan’s column. Unearthed in the Teutoburg forest, it is thought to have belonged to a soldier who perished during Arminius’ uprising. The remains of its wearer had largely decayed into chemical residues, but the nearly skeletal appearance of this flexible yet robust Roman armor serves as a poignant reminder of the individuals lost in the rebellion.
Retirement
At the conclusion of the exhibit, we investigate the retirement of soldiers and what their existence and legacy may entail after their service in the military. It is estimated that about 50% of soldiers overcame illness and violence to attain retirement. Citizen-soldiers received a substantial bonus upon retirement, sufficient to purchase land or enjoy a comfortable lifestyle.
Veteran auxiliary soldiers earned their citizenship, marking the beginning of their and their families’ social evolution. As evidence of this status, they were presented with bronze military diplomas—lasting documents to carry with them into the future. The illustration below belonged to a fleet oarsman based in Egypt named Marcus Papirius. Contrary to the image portrayed in tales such as Ben Hur, Roman galley rowers were free individuals (and were expected to engage in combat like soldiers). Despite being a humble rower, Marcus Papirius was entitled to citizenship following his years of dedication, on par with any marine or fully terrestrial soldier. The document specifies that citizenship was granted to both Papirius’ spouse, Tapaea, and their son, Carpinius.
Image Source: Juan Aunion @ Shutterstock
