The exceptional running abilities of humans among mammals are associated with evolutionary characteristics for persistent hunting. Recent studies, reinforced by historical evidence, argue that these attributes, emerging nearly 2 million years ago, were essential for pursuing large game animals.
The ongoing 2024 Summer Olympics are showcasing a variety of events. Among them, the marathon stands out as a demanding evaluation of strength and athleticism.
Regarding endurance running, humans rank among the foremost mammals in terms of athletic capability. While we may not excel in sprinting compared to other creatures, our capacity to maintain a consistent pace over long distances, even in hot conditions, is noteworthy. We rely heavily on slow-twitch, enduring muscle fibers for locomotion, and our unique ability to perspire efficiently aids in regulating body temperature.
It appears that humans are naturally adept at endurance running. But what is the reason behind this aptitude?
An endurance hypothesis
In 1984, biologist David Carrier proposed the concept of the endurance pursuit theory to elucidate why humans are proficient long-distance runners. According to this notion, human traits for endurance running evolved to enable the chase of large prey through persistent hunting.
Twenty years later, scientists Dennis Bramble and Daniel Lieberman expanded upon Carrier’s theory, emphasizing the physiological traits conducive to endurance running. They posited that these traits first emerged in the Homo genus around 2 million years ago and may have played a crucial role in human physical evolution.
However, the endurance pursuit theory has faced skepticism.
“There have always been two main concerns regarding this theory,” noted Bruce Winterhalder, a retired professor from the UC Davis Department of Anthropology and Graduate Group in Ecology. “Firstly, running is more energy-intensive than walking, so from a simple cost-benefit analysis, it might not seem like an efficient hunting strategy.”
“Secondly, we have some instances of contemporary hunter-gatherers engaging in endurance pursuits, but the occurrences are limited, perhaps fewer than a dozen,” he continued. “For skeptics, the role of endurance pursuits in hunting evolution during the Paleolithic era may not have been as significant if it is not a prevalent practice among modern hunter-gatherers.”
Nevertheless, in a recent research study featured in Nature Human Behaviour, Winterhalder and paleoanthropologist Eugène Morin, from Trent University, utilized mathematical models alongside an extensive ethnohistoric investigation involving firsthand accounts of endurance pursuits to strengthen the support for Carrier’s theory.
Delving into historical evidence
Winterhalder highlighted the importance of vast digitized accounts written by explorers, missionaries, and officials, combined with advanced analytical tools, in uncovering instances of endurance pursuits throughout history.
“The technological tools we have allow us to uncover information on a scale impossible to achieve manually,” Winterhalder remarked.
Utilizing this technology, Winterhalder and Morin identified 391 accounts of hunts, ranging from 1527 to the early 20th century, that aligned with endurance pursuit strategies. These narratives originated from 272 diverse locations worldwide, indicating the widespread practice of endurance pursuit hunting across varied environments.
Analyzing the records
Common patterns were observed across historical accounts of endurance pursuits: hunters encounter a prey animal; a chase ensues (with the prey quickly outdistancing the hunters); the prey stops to recuperate after depletion (allowing the slower hunters to catch up); the prey resumes fleeing; and this cycle repeats until the animal becomes completely exhausted and is caught.
While the overall pattern was consistent, the specific tactics varied.
“In numerous instances, teams or relays were involved in these pursuits. There were also examples of individuals climbing nearby hills to signal the direction of the animal, enabling the pursuing individual to take shortcuts and conserve energy,” Winterhalder explained.
This collaborative approach to endurance pursuit hunting indicates a social component associated with running in humans. According to Winterhalder, showcasing such physical prowess could have served as a means for males to demonstrate their value within the community, potentially elevating their social standing or improving their chances of attracting mates.
In a subsequent study, Winterhalder and Morin plan to delve deeper into the role of females in endurance running. Despite only a 3-4% participation rate of females in the accounts analyzed, Winterhalder pointed out that this does not necessarily reflect poor running abilities among women.
“We discovered numerous references to running contests embedded within festivals, feasts, and rituals. In cases where rituals or games were mentioned, participants included both men, women, and children,” Winterhalder noted.
Furthermore, recent research indicates that “there is evidence of early female involvement in hunting activities” as well.
Supporting claims with mathematical models
Since his days as a graduate student at Cornell University, Winterhalder has specialized in adapting mathematical models, initially crafted by biologists to evaluate the benefits of pursuing prey considering the associated time and energy expenses.
For their latest study, Winterhalder and Morin employed these models to factor in the increasing velocity during game pursuits. They compared the returns from endurance pursuit hunts with other conventional methods of foraging.
“We found that under certain conditions, such as high temperatures or challenging terrains like crusted snow, the overall return rate in terms of food acquisition from endurance pursuits can match or even surpass that of other hunting methods. The likelihood of pursuit failure diminishes, and exhaust prey become easier to approach. These are significant advantages for early humans lacking ballistic weaponry,” Winterhalder elaborated.
Winterhalder anticipates that this research will evoke a greater interest within the scientific community regarding the origins of our running abilities and potentially shed light on why some individuals find running immensely gratifying, akin to the metaphorical “runner’s high.”
“To run extensive distances, possessing an evolved gait imbued with remarkable endurance is a rarity in the animal kingdom,” Winterhalder observed. “If this inspires you to go for a run, that’s fantastic.”
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